Teacher Education  as a Profession : In Search  of  Quality Teacher

 Drs. Suharno, M.Ed.
The English Department, Faculty of Humanities
Diponegoro University

Abstract

For the last 50 years educators have spent a great deal of energy and time to the debate over whether teaching can be classified as a profession.  This paper aims to elaborate the issues of teacher education as a profession and the attempts of classifying characteristics of quality teachers. Teacher education itself is intended to improve the teacher’s skills and knowledge and there have been some approaches for the teacher development such as teacher-as-researcher, action research, clinical supervision, reflective teaching, etc. From the teacher education or development we can figure out some features of effective or quality teachers.

Key words: teacher education, profession, quality teacher, approach, research 

INTRODUCTION

The power to change education-for better or worse-is and always has been in the hands of teachers. (Judith Lloyd Yero, 2003)

	The quotation above shows how the teacher plays an important role in changing the world.  In other words, the teacher functions as an agent of change. But, ironically, his position was  always in the marginal area in the past, especially the teachers from developing countries, including Indonesia. For the last 50 years  educators have  spent a great deal of energy and time to the debate over whether teaching can be classified as a profession.  For instance,  in the 1960s and 1970s  there was a very heated debate whether  teachers could organize strikes and still claim that they were members of a professional association, rather than union.  They argued that the professions have  changed so much over the past 100 years that there is now little left to distinguish professionals from other workers. The issues of teaching as a profession is still a controversy at present. The question is whether being a teacher can be a professional job like  in a medicine (medical doctor), in a law (lawyer) as well as in engineering (an engineer).  That the aim of the teacher education as a profession  or teacher certification is to improve the teacher’s quality is not denied. This essay will try to elaborate  the issues of teacher education as a profession and the efforts of searching  quality teachers  which becomes unending debates among  the education practitioners.   

What is a Profession?
	Profession can be defined as an occupation, esp. one requiring advanced education and special training, e.g. the law, architecture, medicine etc. (Hornby, 1948: 678)  According to Runtĕ1  (1995) in the past there were two sociological theories of profession : trait models and structural-functionalism. The first theory refers to the sociological investigation of the professions which started in the 1930s with attempts to identify the characteristics or traits that distinguished the professions from other occupation. The most commonly cited traits were as follows :
(1)	skill based on abstract knowledge
(2)	provision for training and education, usually associated with a university
(3)	certification based on competence testing
(4)	format organization
(5)	adherence to a code of conduct
(6)	altruistic service

The second theory (structural-functionalism) built on trait models in 1950s and 1960s by providing the theoretical link between the various traits. They argued, for example, that the traits of “university training” and “certification based on competence testing” follows logically from the trait of “skill based on abstract knowledge”. Similarly, a code of ethics, a commitment to altruistic service, and self-regulating professional association – are designed to restrain professionals from taking unfair advantage of their specialized knowledge. Doctors, for example, have the power of life and death over their clients; only lawyer can judge if a contract is valid; and only another accountant can tell if your accountant is fiddling the books. An untrained person in any of these positions  could do great harm, so the professions evolved to protect the public by ensuring that anyone undertaking these crucial jobs is first certified as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
	However,   the two theories or models described above were sharply criticized by other experts. The question is whether the first model (trait model) had causal relationship between various elements of the model, so it was never clear which traits gave rise to the others, or whether all the elements arose independently from  some unexplained outside force.   Meanwhile, the second model (structural-functionalism)  which  dominated  every aspect of public policy until the late 1970s has been steadily losing ground ever since.   There were two reasons for such a dwindling: (1) the structural-functionalists often confused describing how something works for explaining why it works or how it got to be that way; (2) the structural-functionalists started from the assumption that society was based on consensus; that is, that society meets most of the needs of most of the people most of the time. They therefore were not very good at explaining social conflict.

	Considering that teaching is a profession some education experts in USA proposed  standards for entry into teaching profession.  It was expected that the kind of standards would produce more effective teachers and, at the same time, would screen people out of the profession who have not taken courses or degrees that have no relationship to being a good teacher.  According to Department of Education data, more than 90 % of the teachers  have regular certification, and in some regions, it is over 95%. of the teachers have got a Master’s degree. They do not have a problem of teachers lacking degree. Teachers today have more degrees than ever in the history; the bachelor’s degree is ubiquitous, and about half even have a master’s degree. The majority of teachers today have a degree in education, and many have both a B.A and an M.A. in pedagogy. (Ravitch )  
	In relation to the standard requirements, the USS government pays attention to the teacher quality. In fact, it is most important school-related factor influencing student achievement. In 2002 the United States invested $192 billion in teacher pay and benefits. Given the size of this investment, there is  remarkably little research to guide such critical decisions as whom to hire, retain, and promote. (Rice )  

Teacher Development
Teacher development has a large scope to cover. Teacher development can be gained by both formal and informal education.  In the teacher education domain, there is a term called  ‘teacher training’ which is divided into two types : ‘pre-service training’ and ‘in-service training’. Pre-service training is intended for a teacher student and in-service training for a teacher.  Teacher training is different from the teacher development.  Teacher training is more specific, for instance, training for a new teaching method, designing a course outline, etc. On the other hand,  teacher development is a term used  in the literature to describe a process of continual intellectual, experiential, and attitudinal growth of teachers (e.g. Joyce and Weil 1980; Lange 1983).
Since the early 1980s a number of approaches to teacher development have been proposed and implemented in classrooms.  These approaches include the teacher-as-researcher, action research, clinical supervision, and reflective teaching. (Barlett, 1990: 202) 

Teacher-as-Researcher
In the implementation of teacher education, the role of teacher educators is often dominant; they are the only authorities to improve the student teacher’s knowledge.  In other words, they are supposed to prescribe what teachers should do to be effective. The student teachers become a passive receiver: they are to listen, sometimes ask a question, but in the end, to follow a prescription. According to Gebhard (1984) there are some weaknesses in this prescriptive approach  to teacher preparation. First, some experienced teachers will not be happy being told how to teach since they have gained a fund of knowledge in teaching; second, there is no single prescription which is supposed to be the ‘best’ way to teach; and , third, the student teachers will be less independent  to make decision in the classroom.  To make the student teacher more prepared in the real world of teaching, Fanselow (1987) and Jarvis (1972) suggest that the teacher educator give more responsibilities to the student teacher by providing investigative skills. In other words, the student teacher is supposed to be an investigator or researcher.  According to Gebhard (1985) the investigative skills can be gained through  multiple-activities such as teaching a class, observing the teaching act, conducting investigative project of teaching, discussing teaching in several contexts, etc.    

Action Research
	Action research is another approach to improve the teacher’s knowledge and skills in teaching. The primary goal for in-service teacher education is to give teachers ways of exploring their own classrooms.  To conduct such research, the student teachers should be equipped with certain skills and knowledge in the classroom observation and research, especially  they need to be able to conceptualize their practice in theoretical terms, they need to be aware of issues amenable to action research, and they need to have skills in data collection and analysis. (Nunan, 1990 : 62) In relation to the concept of action research, Kemmis and McTaggart (1982) state as follows :  	
The linking of the terms ‘action’ and ‘research’ highlights the essential feature of the method: trying out ideas in practice as a means of improvement and as a means of increasing knowledge about the curriculum, teaching and learning. The result is improvement in what happens in the classroom and school, and better articulation and justification of the educational rationale of what goes on. Action research provides a way of working which links theory and practice into the one whole: idea-in-action.   

Action research in the in-service program  has activities as follows : first, prior to the program, the participants (the student teachers) are asked to video-or audio tape their classrooms over several days, and then to select and transcribe a 10-to 15-minute segment in which there was a ‘critical incident’, or in which a problem occurred, or in which they were trying something new. There are five stages to the program, each with its own subsidiary steps : (1) observing classroom part 1 : theory and practice; (2) observing classroom part 2: methods and techniques; (3) issues for investigation; (4) investigating your own classroom; (5) developing and action research proposal. (Nunan 1990 : 65)

Clinical Supervision
	The term ‘clinical’ is a kind of metaphorical expression which is related to  medical jargons. The student-teacher relationship is compared to the doctor-patient.  In this regard, Gaies &  Bowers (1990 :167) define clinical supervision as ” the process by which teaching performance is systematically observed, analyzed, and evaluated. Clinical supervision is a cyclical process consisting of the three stages : a pre-observation consultation between the teacher and supervisor,  in which the general and specific goals of a classroom visit are established and in which  the teacher and supervisor discuss the context in which the observation will take place – in other words, the general conduct and problems in the course as a whole; the observation itself; and a post-observation analysis and discussion, in which strengths and weaknesses are examined and proposals are made to improve subsequent classroom performance.” 
	As an analogy with the doctor-patient relationship, Gaies a & Bowers (1990 : 177-8) formulated a three-phase process  (pre-observation-observation- post-observation) as follows : diagnosis, consultation, and remediation.

Table 1 :  A three-phase process in clinical supervision
•	DIAGNOSIS (H-O-R-A-C-E)
H- Hear	Listen to the teacher and what the teacher says about objectives,  methods, content, procedures for evaluation	
O-Observe	Watch the teacher in action, in as representative a set of classroom situation as possible.	
R-Record	Use a variety of techniques to record for subsequent discussion the events and skills observed.	
A-Analyze	Use a variety of techniques to “make sense” of the data collected.	
C-Consider	Think about the findings, trying to justify all that has happened.	
E-Evaluate	Only then reach a judgment of the teacher’s performance. Praise where praise is due, and criticize in those areas where adjustment is not only desirable but also feasible.	

•	CONSULTATION (S-S-S-S)

S- Sympathize	Begin the post-observation discussion by showing that you recognize the constraints under which the teacher operates.	
S-Select	Avoid a comprehensive or global critique. Concentrate on one or two critical features of performance – areas where your advice is likely to be accepted and applied.	
S-Summarize	Be brief in your treatment of a point, offering compact evidence for a manageable element of teacher behavior.	
S-Study	With the teacher, give that behavior close consideration – what happened, what did not happen, why, what alternatives exist.	

•	REMEDIATION (T-T-T)
T-Try again	Merely thinking and talking about what has happened will often make it possible for the teacher to modify their own behavior.	
T-Team-teach	Some options may require demonstration. It is difficult, for example, to explain in words the characteristics of effective drilling, or the efficient organization of group work – such things are easier to demonstrate.	
T-Train	For some purposes or in some contexts, training may be the most effective or economical or feasible strategy.	

Reflective Teaching
	Another approach which is intended to help teachers improve their teaching practice is reflective teaching. The definitions of reflective teaching will refer to Cruickshank et al. (1981) and Zeichner (1981).  Cruickshank defines “reflective teaching as the teacher’s thinking about what happens in classroom lessons, and thinking about alternative means of achieving goals or aims; he sees it as a means to provide students with an opportunity to consider the teaching event thoughtfully, analytically and objectively.” (Cruickshank & Applegate 1981:4) Meanwhile Zeichner and Liston (1985) state that “ a reflective teacher is someone who assesses the origins, purposes and consequences of his or her work at all levels.”
	Becoming a reflective teacher is not  a simple process.  The teacher  should take  some steps before fully engaged in this approach. First of all, he or should understand the concepts of reflective teaching, next he or she is aware of the process for becoming reflective, and last is making questions for himself or herself so that he/she will be more reflective. In relation to the concept of reflective teaching, Kemmis (1986) summarizes the meaning of reflection as follows :
	Reflection is not just an individual, psychological process.  It is an action oriented historically-embedded, social and political  frame,  to locate oneself in  the history of a situation, to participate in a social activity, and to take sides on issues.  Moreover the material on which reflection works is given to us socially and historically; through reflection and the action which it informs, we may transform the social relations which characterize out work and our working situation.   

The process of becoming critically reflective can be supported by making a number of self-questions, especially the questions of ‘what and why’. They might include questions such as :
•	What counts as knowledge in second language teaching?
•	How is knowledge in language teaching organized?
•	What caused me to want to become a second language teacher?
•	Do these reasons still exist for me now?
•	Why do I continue to endorse them now in my teaching? (Barlett, 1990: 206)

Characteristics of  Effective Teacher (Quality Teacher)
Characteristics of effective teacher are based on various factors.  We should distinguish the teachers at elementary school level, at high school level, and at tertiary level. Based on the empirical evidence, the quality teacher is closely related to the following factors :
1.	Teacher experience : Several studies have found a positive effect of experience on teacher effectiveness; especially the “learning by doing” effect is most obvious in the early years of teaching.
2.	Teacher certification :  Research has demonstrated a positive effect of certified teachers on high school mathematics achievement when the certification is in mathematics.
3.	Teacher coursework : Teacher coursework in both the subjects area taught an pedagogy contributes to positive education outcomes.
4.	Teachers’ own test scores: Tests that assess the literacy levels or verbal abilities of teachers have been shown to be associated with higher levels of student achievement. (Rice )

Meanwhile Albert P’Rayan (2008), based on his survey, defines an effective teacher of English as someone who possesses 5 I’s : 
1.	Imagination : A teacher who is imaginative can do wonders in the English class.  Their new ideas break monotony and make students take lively participation in the class. Albert Einstein says that imagination is more important than knowledge.
2.	Innovativeness : An innovative teacher dares to go off the track in order to be on the track. Students like teachers who are innovative. Innovativeness means (a) introducing changes and new ideas, (b)) daring to be different and being unique,(c) going off the track in order to be on the track, (d) experimenting new things, (e) being fresh always.
3.	Interaction :  A teacher who  promotes interaction in the English class does justice to their profession by empowering learners and helping them develop their communication skills. They motivate their students, create opportunities for them to interact with one another through commutainment (communication through entertainment) activities such as role plays, group discussions, mock interviews, etc.
4.	Independent thinking : Independent thinking is the process of being able to think on your own, without someone else guiding you. Teachers can help their students develop their independent thinking only if they are independent. Independent thinking implies (a) thinking on your own, (b) being critical of what you see and hear, (c) questioning information and irrational assumptions.
5.	Interdependent Imagination : Interdependence is essential for a successful person.  Taking students from dependent stage to independent stage and then to interdependent stage is very important.  Man is a social animal and interpersonal relationship is the key to success in today’s competitive world. The one who knows how to relate with others can climb up the ladder of success. Those who are interdependent use positive language and win people.
Another study investigating the qualities of effective teachers from the perspective of gifted students was conducted in Australia. A questionnaire was administered to students in years 7, 9 and 11 at an academically selective high school in New South Wales Australia.  The data showed that the personal-social qualities of the teachers were more highly valued than their intellectual qualities although there was a shift between Year 7 and year 11 toward the intellectual end of the continuum.
For instance, Renzulli’s (1968) survey of twenty-one experts in gifted education indicated that the most important element in the success of programs for gifted students was the teacher. An analysis of the literature into qualities of the effective teacher of gifted students demonstrates that while nomenclature is used by the various researchers, their conclusions inevitably accommodate a complex combination of personality characteristics, knowledge and skills, professional attitudes, and teaching approaches and strategies. The writers who have researched and subsequently listed the characteristics that are essential or highly desirable in effective teachers of the gifted have drawn on a variety of sources including gifted education experts, teachers, students, and/or parents. A synthesis of their conclusions reveals a number of characteristics as recurring themes (see Table 2 for summary). These themes can be grouped along three dimensions relating to the teachers’ knowledge and skills, their teaching and classroom management style, and their interpersonal qualities.

Table 2 : Characteristics of Effective teachers of the Gifted
Characteristic	Source	
has insights into the cognitive, social and emotional needs of gifted students	Bishop, 1980; Burg. 1988; Davalos & Griffin, 1999; Feldhusen, 1991; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Nelson & Prindle, 1992; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989.
	
has skills in differentiating the curriculum for gifted students	Feldhusen, 1991; Nelson & Prindle, 1992; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989.
	
employs strategies that encourage higher level thinking	Feldhusen, 1991; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Nelson & Prindle, 1992.
	
encourages students to be independent learners	Feldhusen, 1991; Goertz & Phemister, 1994; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Nelson & Prindle, 1992; Whitlock & DuCettle, 1989.	
provides student-centered learning opportunities	Bishop, 1980; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989.

acts as a facilitator or ‘guide on the side”	Bernal, 1994; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989.
	
creates a non-threatening learning environment	Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994

is well organized	Bishopp, 1980; Feldhusen, 1991; Maddux, Samples-Lachmann & Cummnings, 1985
	
possesses in-depth knowledge of subject matter	Bishop, 1980; Burg, 1988; Emerick, 1992; Feldhusen, 1991; Lewis, 1982; Goertz & Phemister, 1994; Maddux et al., 1985; Milgram, 1979
	
has broad interests, often literary and cultural	Bishop, 1980

has above average intelligence	Bishop, 1980; Feldhusen,1991; Lewis, 1982; Milgram, 1979
	
is a lifelong learner	Bernal, 1994; Emerick, 1992
	
thinks creatively	Bishop, 1980; Lewis, 1982; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Maddux et al, 1985; Milgram, 1979; Nelson & Prindle, 1992	
		
possesses excellent communication skills	Bishop, 1980; Lewis, 1982
	
is willing to make mistakes	Bernal, 1994; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989
	
possesses a sense of humor	Bernal, 1994; Burg, 1988; Goertz & Phemister, 1994; Maddux et al, 1985
	
is enthusiastic	Feldhusen, 1991; Goertz & Phemister, 1994; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989	

Conclusion
In order to obtain the features of good teacher, there have been attempts by the educators to carry out research in language teaching and learning and the form of teacher development or education has been an unending debate among the education practitioners. From the elaboration in the previous sections, two crucial points are noted : (1) Various approaches in the teacher development can be complementary to each other; in  other words, the more varied the teachers take teacher training and teaching experience, the more knowledgeable the teachers will be; (2) From the various research data and teaching-learning evaluation by the students, teachers, parents, stake holders, as well as  a teacher training, some features of quality teacher can be identified. 

References
Barlett, L. (1990). “Teacher Development through Reflective Teaching” in  Second Language Teacher  Education (eds. Richards, J.C.  & D. Nunan). Cambridge : CUP.
Gaies, S. & R. Bowers  (1990). “Clinical Supervision of Language Teaching: the Supervisor as Trainer and Educator” in  Second Language Teacher  Education (eds. Richards, J.C.  & D. Nunan). Cambridge : CUP.
Gebhard, J.G. et al (1990). “Beyond Prescription: the Student Teacher as Investigator”  in  Second Language Teacher  Education (eds. Richards, J.C.  & D. Nunan). Cambridge : CUP.
Hornby, A.S. (1974). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.  London : OUP.
Nunan, D. (1990). “Action Research in the Language Classroom “ in  Second Language Teacher  Education (eds. Richards, J.C.  & D. Nunan). Cambridge : CUP.
Ravitch, D.  Strengthen Teacher Quality : A Brief History of Teacher Professionalism. White House Conference on Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers. http://www.ed.gov/dminis/tchqual/learn/preparing teacherconfernce/ravitch.html. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
Renzulli, J.S. (1968). “Identifying Key Features in Programs for the Gifted.” Exceptional Children, 35, 217-221.
Runte, R. (1995). Is Teaching a Profession? Toronto : Harcourt Brace.
P’Rayan, A. Characteristics of Highly Effective Teachers of English. 16 May, 2008. albertrayan blog.
Rice, J.K. Teacher  Quality : Understanding the Effectiveness of Teacher Attributes.

Description of the Author
Suharno was born  on 8 May 1952, Yogyakarta, he started teaching in the English Department, Faculty of Humanities, Diponegoro University (UNDIP), Semarang in 1983. He  got his Masters degree (M.Ed.) at Exeter University, England in 1989 and he is now taking his post-graduate (S3) program in language education at PPS UNNES (Semarang State University). As a Vice Dean for Development and Cooperation, he was  one of the initiators to be the host counterpart of RELO-ELFs (English Language Fellows) and Ms. Stephanie Hanson (ELF) was assigned by RELO to assist the development of the English Department (especially in teaching-learning language skills) for 10 months (September 2009-September 2010).